Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) constitutes an escalating threat to global health. However, the social and spatial inequalities associated with its impacts remain insufficiently examined. This review, encompassing literature published up to 2024, investigates how disparities in the health effects of PM2.5 have been addressed in the academic field. Through the analysis of 251 articles indexed in the Web of Science and Scopus databases, using bibliometric analysis, structural topic modelling (STM), and qualitative content analysis, this study identifies a marked increase in scientific output since 2016, predominantly originating from the United States, China, and the United Kingdom. The literature highlights the disproportionate burden borne by vulnerable groups, including low-income populations, racial and ethnic minorities, women, migrants, children, and the elderly, with an emphasis on socioeconomic inequality, racism, and gender-based disparities. Despite growing attention to environmental justice, the incorporation of intersectional frameworks remains limited, with LGBTQ+ populations notably absent from discussions on gender and health inequities. Furthermore, the Global South remains underrepresented, even as it faces more acute socio-environmental challenges. The review also underscores the intersection between poverty, reliance on solid fuels, and elevated PM2.5 exposure, reinforcing the imperative for a just energy transition. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic not only revealed the link between PM2.5 and increased risk of severe SARS-CoV-2 infection but also accentuated existing inequalities. These findings collectively point to persistent gaps in the literature and underscore the need to advance theoretical and methodological approaches that account for intersecting vulnerabilities, broaden geographic representation, and ensure the inclusion of marginalised populations in order to foster a more comprehensive and equitable understanding of the health risks associated with PM2.5.
- Fine particulate matter and environmental injustice: a review of global inequalities in exposure and their health effects
- Giulia Mariano Machado (Author) - Universidade de São PauloPrashant Kumar (Author) - University of Surrey, Mechanical Engineering SciencesThiago Nogueira (Corresponding Author) - Universidade de São Paulo
- Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, Vol.19(5), 118
- Springer
- 20
- 12/05/2026
- 24/04/2026
- Reclaiming Forgotten Cities - Turning cities from vulnerable spaces to healthy places for people [RECLAIM], EP/W034034/1, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (United Kingdom, Swindon) - EPSRCGP4Streets, APP44894, UK Research and Innovation (United Kingdom, Swindon) - UKRIGREENIN Micro Network Plus, APP55977, UK Research and Innovation (United Kingdom, Swindon) - UKRI2025/03337-3, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo) - FAPESP2024/11003-5, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Brazil, São Paulo) - FAPESP
- This study was financed, in part, by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), Brazil, process number #2025/03337-3 and #2024/11003-5. PK acknowledges the support received through the UKRI-funded GP4Streets (APP44894), RECLAIM Network Plus (EP/W034034/1), GreenCities (NE/X002799/1), GREENIN Micro Network Plus (APP55977), and UGPN-funded UGPN-NBS and GREENICON projects. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for the publication of this research was funded by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) (ROR identifier: 00x0ma614). This study was financed, in part, by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), Brazil, process number #2025/03337-3 and #2024/11003-5. PK acknowledges the support received through the UKRI-funded GP4Streets (APP44894), RECLAIM Network Plus (EP/W034034/1), GreenCities (NE/X002799/1), GREENIN Micro Network Plus (APP55977), and UGPN-funded UGPN-NBS and GREENICON projects.
- 991127095202346; WOS:001764676200001
- © The author(s) 2026. Open Access. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
- Mechanical Engineering Sciences
- Journal article
- The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are included within this published article and its supplementary information files. No external data repository was used.