Abstract
Many real-world optimization tasks suffer from noise. So far, the research on noise-tolerant optimization algorithms is still restricted to low-dimensional problems with less than 100 decision variables. In reality, many problems are high-dimensional. Cooperative coevolutionary (CC) algorithms based on a divide-and-conquer strategy are promising in solving complex high-dimensional problems. However, noisy fitness evaluations pose a challenge in problem decomposition for CC. The state-of-the-art grouping methods, such as differential grouping and recursive differential grouping, are unable to work properly in noisy environments. Because it is impossible to distinguish whether the change of one variable's difference value is caused by noise or the perturbation of its interacting variables. As a result, every pair of variables will be identified as nonseparable in these methods. In this paper, we study how to group decision variables with covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMA-ES) in noisy environments and subsequently propose a landscape-aware grouping (LAG) method. Instead of detecting pairwise interacting variables, we directly identify a nonseparable subcomponent. To this end, we propose to use two convergence features, variable convergence time and accumulative path, to describe variables' fitness landscapes; then, variables are clustered according to these two features. Numerical experiments show that LAG can more effectively identify interactive decision variables in the presence of multiplicative noise than the differential grouping and some of its variants. Up to 500 dimensions, the performance of cooperative coevolutionary CMA-ES with landscape-aware grouping (CC-CMAES-LAG) is competitive compared with existing CC algorithms and uncertainty-handling CMA-ES (UH-CMA-ES).