Access to natural environments supports health and wellbeing, yet for many people, everyday contact with nature occurs primarily through gardens. This includes not only private domestic gardens, but also publicly accessible horticultural gardens, which are increasingly visited for leisure, restoration, and wellbeing. In the UK, there are 20.6 million domestic gardens, and 60% of the UK population engaged in gardening activities at least once a month in 2024 (Griffiths et al., 2025). Public horticultural gardens also attract millions of visitors annually and are important settings for wellbeing-focused design and intervention (RHS, 2025). However, understanding of the specific psychological mechanisms and design features linking gardens and wellbeing remain poorly understood. Theories such as attention restoration theory (ART; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) and stress reduction theory (SRT; Ulrich, 1984) explain the restorative impact of nature through cognitive and affective processes, yet they have been criticised for overlooking subjective, multisensory, and individual experiences and there is little evidence of theoretical applications to the garden context.

This PhD research, conducted in partnership with the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), sought to advance understanding of the garden–wellbeing relationship through a multi-study, mixed-methods approach. It explored (1) which design features of gardens promote wellbeing and restorative outcomes, and (2) how engagement and mindful awareness influence these effects. The research contributes to the evidence base for health-supportive garden design and nature-based wellbeing interventions.

Aims

The overarching aim was to develop an evidence-based understanding of how both environmental characteristics and person–environment interactions influence the wellbeing potential of gardens.

The specific objectives were to:

1. Identify design principles and features associated with wellbeing in both horticultural and domestic gardens.
2. Explore emotional and restorative responses to specific garden elements in an intentionally designed wellbeing garden at RHS Wisley.
3. Examine whether prompting mindful awareness of natural features enhances wellbeing and restoration.
4. Evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of a six-week garden-based mindfulness intervention for individuals experiencing stress and anxiety.

Method

Study 1 – Systematic review

A review of healing and wellbeing garden literature identified core design principles and evidence-based recommendations.

Study 2 – Garden feature survey

A survey-based study at RHS Wisley’s wellbeing garden explored emotional and restorative responses to distinct zones and features (e.g., water, planting, views). Participants completed ratings of affect (happy, calm, excited, sad) and perceived restoration, alongside open-ended reflections.

Study 3 – Experimental prompting study

An experimental study tested whether prompting individuals to notice restorative natural features (vs. built or no prompts) affected state wellbeing, positive affect, and restoration during a 20-minute visit at RHS Wisley’s wellbeing garden.

Study 4 – Six-week garden-based mindfulness intervention

A randomised controlled trial compared a structured, online nature-based mindfulness intervention with an unstructured control group in domestic gardens. Weekly activities guided sensory and emotional engagement with participants’ own gardens. Outcomes (stress, anxiety, wellbeing, restoration, and nature connection) were measured at baseline, week 3, week 6, and two-week follow-up.

Results

Study 1 identified six defining characteristics of wellbeing-supportive gardens: accessibility, wayfinding, fostering serenity, multisensory planting, spatial organisation, and inclusion of cultural artefacts. These principles informed later studies and contributed to evidence-based design guidance.

Study 2 found that features linked to positive affect and restoration included flowing water, diverse planting (colour, scent, texture, and biodiversity), and seating offering both prospect and refuge. Participants associated bright colours with excitement, and natural soundscapes with relaxation.

Study 3 demonstrated that mindful prompting enhanced psychological outcomes. Participants in the restorative prompt condition showed significantly greater improvements in state wellbeing, positive affect, and restoration than those prompted to notice human-made elements. Qualitative responses suggested that directed attention toward natural sensory features increased feelings of connection to nature.

Study 4 found that participants completing the six-week garden-based mindfulness intervention reported greater reductions in stress and anxiety, and greater increases in restoration and nature connectedness than the control group. Mediation analyses indicated that nature connectedness partially explained the relationship between the intervention and restoration, highlighting it as a key mechanism. Qualitative feedback indicated high acceptability and feasibility, with participants describing feelings of calm, reflection, and increased appreciation for their gardens.

Conclusion

This thesis advances theoretical and applied understanding of how horticultural and domestic gardens support wellbeing. Across four studies, it demonstrates that both design features (e.g., multisensory planting, spatial variety, water, and refuge–prospect balance) and psychological engagement (e.g., mindful noticing and emotional connection) play crucial roles in restorative outcomes.

Findings suggest that simply being in a garden is beneficial, especially when it includes specific restorative features such as multisensory planting, water elements, accessible seating, and coherent spatial design , however, intentional and mindful engagement amplifies these effects, strengthening nature connection and stress recovery.

By integrating environmental psychology with design and health perspectives, this research provides an empirically grounded framework for evidence-based wellbeing garden design and supports the inclusion of garden-based mindfulness in green social prescribing initiatives. The thesis makes a novel contribution by demonstrating that wellbeing benefits arise not only from garden design features, but also from intentional and mindful engagement with those features, with nature connection identified as a key psychological mechanism underpinning restoration. In doing so, it bridges the gap between theory, design practice, and applied health interventions, underscoring gardens as accessible, everyday spaces for enhancing human wellbeing.