This thesis shares fresh insights on the debate on formalisation of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in sub-Saharan Africa, with special emphasis on cooperative building. Although cooperative building and more broadly, group organisation, is seen as vital for ASM formalisation, there is a lack of in-depth analysis on this topic. Through a case study of “development minerals” in Angola, this thesis interrogates cooperative building as a strategy for formalising ASM, in turn, showcasing the disparity between what the parties driving this agenda (e.g. donors, private sector partners and host governments) believes this to entail on the one hand.

Using a three-pillar framework comprising “Social Capital”, “Local Economic Development”, and “Pro-Poor”, the thesis delves into the regulatory landscape and organisational dynamics of ASM, which is populated by mostly informal ASM’s. It draws on data gathered during focus groups with (mine) operators and other grassroots-level stakeholders to map the organisational structures of informal ASM communities and detail the relationships among those who populate them. These findings are used to illuminate the disconnect between the realities of ASM’s organisational underpinnings in Angola. The latter position is informed by findings from semi-structured interviews with government officials, analysis of industry briefs and syntheses of archival documents, which collectively provided an informed understanding of the dynamics of the regulatory and policy landscape for ASM in Angola. The thesis uses findings to revisit and interrogate the idea of cooperative building as a centrepiece for the ASM formalisation strategy in sub-Saharan Africa. It argues that moving forward, to make (ASM) cooperative-building a useful exercise in sub-Saharan Africa, a compromise must be reached between the architects of (formalisation) schemes and targeted operators. Referred to here as “striking a balance”, this would entail overhauling hitherto top-down ASM formalization processes to integrate cooperative building strategies that align with the sector's current organisational framework.